Contemporary theories of emotion emphasize the dual role of emotions as both personal experiences and communicative signals during social interactions. However, the impact of macro-level societal structures on emotional expression remains underexplored. This study investigates the expression-experience discrepancy for self-reported emotions across nations, focusing on how societal development relates to this discrepancy, which captures expressivity. Using meta-analysis and multilevel modeling with a multinational sample (Nsample = 12,549, knation = 48; Study 1), we assessed the directions and variabilities in the frequency of expression of both positive and negative emotions, relative to the frequency of experiencing them. Negative emotions were more likely to be under-expressed. Further analyses revealed that societal trust, system quality and fairness, and the human development index significantly predicted the size of these discrepancies. Surprisingly, these effects were not associated with traditional cultural dimensions such as individualism versus collectivism, providing new insights into the social functionality of emotions from a macro perspective. These findings were replicated in an extended multinational sample (Nsample = 19,690, knation = 65; Study 2). Our findings highlight the importance of considering structural and societal factors in emotion research and provide a foundation for future explorations into the relations between cultural contexts and the expression of emotions.
This study introduces and validates the Biological Essentialism in Parenting Questionnaire (BEPQ), a new instrument designed to assess beliefs that men and women possess inherent, biologically determined differences in parenting roles. Despite evolving norms favoring gender-equal parenting, essentialist views continue to influence family dynamics, workplace policies, and cultural expectations. In Study 1 (N = 488, Poland), we developed the BEPQ and confirmed a two-factor structure, distinguishing maternal and paternal essentialism, through exploratory factor analysis. Both subscales demonstrated high internal consistency and negative correlations with gender-neutral parenting beliefs, supporting their reliability and convergent validity. Study 2 (N = 1249) extended validation to parents in Poland, Italy, and Sweden. Confirmatory factor analysis and multigroup modeling established strict measurement invariance across countries and gender identities, ensuring robust cross-cultural applicability. Findings showed that Polish parents most strongly endorsed essentialist beliefs, followed by Italian and then Swedish parents. Heterosexual parents reported stronger essentialist views than LGBTQ+ parents, men showed higher paternal essentialism, and women endorsed maternal essentialism more strongly, with non-binary parents consistently reporting the lowest levels across both dimensions. By providing a reliable and cross-culturally validated tool, the BEPQ advances research on how biological essentialist ideologies maintain gendered caregiving roles within diverse family structures. These findings can inform interventions and policies aimed at promoting gender equality in family life.
This study examined cognitive and temperamental predictors of susceptibility to orientation illusions, using adjustment tasks based on the Poggendorff and Zöllner figures. Cognitive predictors included field dependence–independence and the efficiency of Posner’s attentional networks (alerting, orienting, and executive control), while temperamental traits were assessed within Strelau’s Regulative Theory of Temperament. A total of 161 participants aged 20–33 years took part in the study. Susceptibility to the Poggendorff illusion was associated only with lower alerting network efficiency. In contrast, susceptibility to the Zöllner illusion was linked to both cognitive and temperamental factors: a field-dependent cognitive style combined with moderate or high Endurance, and an efficient orienting network combined with high Briskness. The findings support a multifactorial, illusion-specific account of susceptibility to orientation illusions, demonstrating that attentional, cognitive-style, and temperamental characteristics jointly contribute to individual differences in illusion strength.
Most former studies on maternal gatekeeping have been limited to mothers’ reports and the United States context. Accordingly, we modified the Maternal Gatekeeping Measure (MGM) to measure both mothers’ and fathers’ beliefs and behaviors and titled the new version the Parental Gatekeeping Measure (PGM). We conducted two studies on Polish parents having children under 3 years old. In the first, aimed to verify the internal structure and reliability of the PGM, we recruited 290 parents (aged 22–45; 54% mothers). Next, 113 heterosexual dyads of parents (n = 226; aged 23–44; 50% mothers) were recruited in Study 2, which aimed to investigate the PGM’s criterion validity by examining its relationships with parental identity, values, dyadic perfectionism, and another measure of parental gatekeeping. The original three-factor structure of the MGM was replicated in the modified Polish version. Additionally, we successfully established the gender invariance of the PGM and found significant differences in the intensity of gatekeeping between mothers and fathers. Our analysis revealed that stronger parental gatekeeping was related to stronger dyadic perfectionism, control, discouragement, and traditional values. Thus, the Polish modification of the MGM is a reliable, valid, and psychometrically sound measure of parental gatekeeping beliefs and behaviors.
