This study aims to verify the hypothesis that the legal framework estab-lished by the Regulation of the Minister of Health of 29 April 2024 regarding the pilot program for pharmaceutical services related to reproductive health – effective as of 1 May 2024 – may not fully guarantee the implementation and oversight of patients’ fundamental rights, as defined in the Act of 6 Novem-ber 2008 on Patients’ Rights and the Patient Ombudsman. A formal-dog-matic analysis was undertaken to examine statutory provisions governing the legal status of the “patient” and the correlative duty to uphold patients’ rights in the context of healthcare provision. The study further explores whether certain pharmaceutical services provided by pharmacists in pub-licly accessible pharmacies may be classified as healthcare services within the meaning of the Act on Medical Activity – thus extending to their recipi-ents the legal protections afforded to patients. The analysis also identifies a potential gap in the applicability of institutional protections offered by the Patient Ombudsman to individuals receiving services in community pharma-cies, which do not meet the statutory definition of medical service providers. This issue is particularly relevant in the context of the pilot program, espe-cially in relation to the legal framework for obtaining consent from minor pa-tients. The findings may contribute to ongoing discussions on legislative reform, particularly regarding the introduction of legal provisions that would enable the valid collection of patient consent in pharmacy settings and the inclusion of pharmacies in proceedings before the Patient Ombuds-man.
Does ideological extremism within generations explain electoral mobilization? While much of the literature on voter turnout highlights the importance of system-level polarization and the congruence between voters’ ideological positions and party options, the influence of intra-generational peer dynamics on voting behavior remains less explored. Moreover, unlike the ambivalence often produced by cross-pressures in intimate networks such as families or close friends, divergence from generational peers may heighten the salience of political identity and encourage mobilization. This paper argues that individuals with more extreme ideological views relative to the average within their generation are more likely to participate in elections. Rather than a condition of alienation, ideological extremism operates as an active force that compels individuals to defend their political identities, either by resisting perceived threats from opposing ideologies or by articulating deeply held convictions. Using data from the Polish National Election Study (POLNES) collected between 2011 and 2023, this study examines how divergence from generational norms functions as a distinctive form of extremism that mobilizes voters. The findings indicate that ideological extremism within generations increases the likelihood of voter turnout, offering new insights into the interplay between ideological extremism, generational contexts, and electoral mobilization.
For the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), the Rwandan Genocide started in April 1994 and ended in July of the same year, due to the relevant United Nations Security Council resolution, which tasked the ICTR to prosecute the genocide. In recent years, several authors have claimed that the genocide against the Tutsi to be preceded by another genocide: the massacres against the Bagogwe in the northern part of the country. In this article, we discuss the evidentiary background of these claims, assess them in terms of International Criminal Law and the jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda with the aim to establish whether they fulfilled the criteria for a genocide. We emphasize the importance of the protected group criteria and the issue of the perpetrators’ genocidal intent. We conclude that the massacres against the Bagogwe fulfilled even the demanding requirements of the ICTR’s concept of crimes against humanity. However, at first sight, the Bagogwe seem to lack the necessary characteristics of a group protected by the Genocide Convention. By applying the Akayesu criteria of ‘any stable and permanent’ group and new research showing they were targeted not just as Tutsi but specificly as traditional cattle holding Tutsi, we propose to overcome this obstacle.
Pozostałe osiągnięcia naukoweArtykuły (zamknięty dostęp)Journal article
